Cork Cambium

• Cork Cambium is also known as Phellogen.
• The cork cambium is a secondary lateral meristem and it is responsible for secondary growth that replaces an epidermis in roots and stems.

Reason:

• This is formed due to vascular cambium activity inside the stem and root.
• This leads to the outer cortical and epidermis layers getting broken and need to be replaced by new protective cell layers.

Structure:

• Cork cambium is formed in the cortex region.
• It is a couple of layers (double layer) and made up of narrow, thin walled and nearly rectangular cells.
• It produces cells towards the inner side, that cells are known as secondary cortex or phelloderm.
• It produces cells on their outer surface, that cells are known as phellem or cork.
• Phellem (Cork), Phellogen (cork cambium) and phelloderm (secondary cortex) together are called periderm.

Functions:

• Phelloderm helps in photosynthesis and stores food materials.
• Phellogen is a synthesis of Phelloderm (new cells towards inner cortex) and Phellem (new cells towards outer epidermis).
• Phellem is impervious to water due to suberin deposition in the cell wall.

Difference between Fertilizers and Manure

CHARACTERISTICS	FERTILIZERS	MANURE
Meaning	It is manufacture by fertilizer companies with chemical. It may be synthetic or very less organic.	It is completely derived from naturally or through animal and plant wastes. It is made up of organic material.
Nutrient Content	Each fertilizer has its own specification or chemical composition.	It contains broader range of nutrients without any specification.
Cost	It is expensive than manure	It is cheaper in most of the cases but depends on locality and labour work.
Environmental Impact	Synthetic fertilizer hazards to the soil fertility.	It is environmental friendly, if not properly maintain, it creates water pollution in the form of bad odour and causes microbial diseases.
Nutrient Releasing Mechanism and duration	It supplies nutrients to the plants faster and with in a short period	It supplies nutrients to the plants very slow and take long period due to slow decomposition of organic material.
Farmer Point of View	It gives more yield and immediate supply of nutrients to the plants.	It increases soil fertility and slowly supplies nutrients to the plants.
Examples	Urea, Slurry, NPK etc.	Cow dung, poultry waste, biogas waste, dead plant waste etc.

 Conclusion:

Both manure and fertilizer aim to nurture healthy soil and thriving plants, their methods differ in their function. So, many farmers and gardeners use a combination of both fertilizers and manure to optimize or to increase soil health and plant productivity by reducing environmental impacts.

WHAT NEXT FOR PCMB STUDENTS?

1. Medical Sectors:

• MBBS
• Veterinary
• Dental
• Naturopathy
• Ayurveda
• Homeopathic

Exams:
NEET, and Private colleges conduct Exams separately.

2. Agriculture Sectors:

• B.Sc Agriculture
• Agriculture Engineering

Exams:
ICAR (National Level), KCET (State Level) and through management also you can join

Colleges for Agriculture:
Guru Kashi University, Sardulgarh Road, Talwandi Sabo, Punjab 151302

3. Pharma Sectors:

• Pharm D (Doctor of pharmacy)
• B Pharma (Bachelor of Pharmacy)
• D Pharma (Diploma in pharmacy)

Exams:
GPAT, NIPER JEE, MET, KCET, NDA

4. Life Science Engineering:

• Genetical
• Biomedical
• Chemical
• Food Technology
• Diary Technology
• Biotechnology
• Bioinformatics
• Marine
• Environmental
• Nanotechnology
• Pharmaceutical

Exams:
JEE, KCET, COMEDK, JoSAA, NDA

5. B.Sc Nursing Exams:
KCET, KEA, NDA, AIIMS.

6. Para Medical Sciences: (B.Sc and Diploma):

• Anesthesia Technology (even you will handle ICU)
• X-Ray Technology
• Health Inspector
• Dialysis Technology
• Dental Mechanics
• Dental Hygiene
• Radiography and Medical Imaging
• ECG Technology
• Physiotherapy
• Medical Laboratory Technology
• Orthopedics
• Operation Theater Technology
• Endoscopy and Colonoscopy
• Cardiac Technology
• BOT (Bachelor of Occupational Therapy)

Exams:
NIPER, CPNET, NDA,

College Name:
Reva University
Manipal
Victoria
Kims
Jalappa

7. Life Science B.Sc Courses:

• Bioinformatics
• CBBt
• CBZ
• CBMi
• BGB
• Diary Technology

Do Masters

Write Exam JAM
IIAM (Indian Institute of Arbitration and Meditation) or IIT (Indian Institute of Technology).

• Sericulture
• Nanotechnology
• Forensic Science
• Marine Biotechnology
• Plant Biotechnology
• Animal biotechnology
• Bioinformatics
• Environmental Science
• Entomology
• MBA [Biotechnology or Medical Marketing/ Financing / HR or Global Marketing / Logistics (transportation), Aviation]

8. Bioinformatics:

• IBIB (Institute of Biotechnology and Institute of Biotechnology = CET/NEET/JEE/college entrance exam).
• Reva University
• Manipal University
• Garden City University
• Dayanand Sagar

9. Engineering:

• Robotics and Automation
• Aerospace
• Petroleum
• Electronic and Communication
• Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering
• EEE
• Material Science
• Computer Science (do core science)
• Civil Engineering
• Mechatronics
• Mechanical Engineering
• Geo Informatics
• Fashion Technology etc.

Exams:
JEE, KCET, COMEDK, JoSAA, NDA

10. Architectural Engineering Exam:
NATA,

official Website: www.nata.in

After engineering write Exams related to DRDO (SEE) and Ordnance Factory Board (OFB)

11. Bachelor degree courses:
PMCs, PMC, PME, PMG, BCA, B.Com, BA (POJ or HEG or HEE), BBA etc.

12. Solar Engineering Certificates:
Eligibility: Any Degree but it is very useful for B.E or BTech Students

13. LAW:

• BA/B.Com + LLB
• BBA+LLB
• BE+LLB
• Any Degree+LLB

Exams: CLAT

14. Defense:
Eligibility: Any Degree

• Indian Army: The Indian Army is the largest branch of the Indian Armed Forces. It is responsible for the defense of the country by land. There are many different types of jobs available in the Indian Army, including soldier, officer, doctor, engineer, and lawyer.
• Indian Navy: The Indian Navy is responsible for the defense of the country by sea. There are many different types of jobs available in the Indian Navy, including sailor, officer, pilot, doctor, and engineer.
• Indian Air Force: The Indian Air Force is responsible for the defense of the country by air. There are many different types of jobs available in the Indian Air Force, including pilot, officer, technician, doctor, and engineer.
• Marcos: The Marine Commandos (MARCOS) are the Indian Navy's special forces unit. They are known for their bravery and combat capabilities, and are considered the toughest soldiers in the Indian Navy.
• Paramilitary Forces: The Paramilitary Forces are responsible for law and order in the country. paramilitary forces like the Border Security Force (BSF), Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF), Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), and others. These forces play a crucial role in maintaining internal security and border protection.
• Armed Forces Medical Services (AFMS): For those interested in combining a medical career with military service, the Armed Forces Medical Services provides opportunities for doctors and medical professionals.
• Coast Guard: The Indian Coast Guard is responsible for protecting India's maritime interests. Opportunities exist for officers and sailors.

14.1 Exams for Defence:

• NDA (National Defence Academy): For candidates after 10+2.
• CDS (Combined Defence Services): For graduates.
• AFCAT (Air Force Common Admission Test): For officers in the Indian Air Force.
• INET (Indian Navy Entrance Test): For officers in the Indian Navy.
• TES (Technical Entry Scheme): For engineering graduates in the Indian Army.
• DRDO and OFB

14.2 Agnipath Scheme:

• The Agnipath Scheme is a new recruitment program launched by the Indian government in June 2022 for the three branches of the Armed Forces: Indian Army, Indian Navy, and Indian Air Force.
• Eligibility: Indian citizen with 18 to 21 years

15. Administrative and Social Service Sectors (Government Jobs):
Eligibility: Any Degree

• Civil Services
• Police
• Banks
• Municipalities
• Village Accountant
• BesCom
• Railway Department etc.

15.1 Government Exams:
UPSC, NDA, IBPS, SBI, RRB, KAS, CDS, SSB, AFCAT, SSC, FDA, SDA, KPSC etc.

16. Management Courses:

• Hospital Management
• Hotel Management
• BBA
• BBA: Economics and Financial

Exams:
IIAM, CAT OR PGCET

17. Film:

• Bachelor in Films
• Bachelor in Acting
• B.Sc in 3D Animation
• B.Sc in Electronic Media
• B.Sc in Mass Communication
• Fashion Design
• Interior Design
• Journalism
• Multimedia
• Travel and Tourism.

18. Music's:

• Bachelor of Performing Arts (Musics).
• Bachelor of Musics
• Singer/Musician
• Instrumentalist
• Songwriter
• Music Producer
• Music Engineer
• Music Therapist

19. Pilot:
They are two types of Pilots,

• Aircraft Pilot and
• Marine or Ship or Maritime Pilot

19.1 Aircraft Pilot Aviation Exams:
Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Akademi (IGRUA) Entrance Test, Air Force Common Admission Test (AFCAT) and Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Common Entrance Exam (AME CET) and NDA.

19.1.1 Aircraft Pilot Colleges:

• Indira Gandhi Rashtriya Uran Academy
• Bombay Flying Club
• Rajiv Gandhi Academy of Aviation Technology
• Madhya Pradesh Flying Club
• National Flying Training Institute
• Ahmedabad Aviation and Aeronautics Limited
• CAE Oxford Aviation Academy
• Indigo Cadet Training Program
• Government Aviation Training Institute
• Puducherry Thakur College of Aviation
• Government Flying Club
• Orient Flying School
• Institute of Aviation and Aviation Safety

19.1.2 Aviation courses: (After Any Degree)

• Pilot Training
• Aviation Management
• Aerospace Engineering
• Air Traffic Control
• Aviation Safety and Security
• Flight dispatch
• Aviation English
• Drone / UAV Operation
• Air Hostess or Cabin Crew

19.2 Maritime Pilot or Captain Exams:
NDA, JEE Advanced, MERI Entrance Exam, TMI SAT, Indian Maritime University Common Entrance Test (IMU – CET), Indian Maritime University (IMU), All India Merchant Navy Entrance Test

Maritime Pilot Colleges:

• Tolani Maritime Institute (TMI)
• B.P. Marine Academy Navi, Mumbai
• Coimbatore Marine College (CMC), Coimbatore
• International Maritime Institute (IMI), Delhi
• Vels Academy of Maritime Studies Chennai
• Maharashtra Academy of Naval Education and Training (MANET), Pune
• SCI Maritime Training Institute, Kolkata
• Institute of Technology & Marine Engineering (ITME), Kolkata
• TS Rahaman, Mumbai
• Indian Maritime University (IMU), Chennai
• RL University of Nautical Science, Madhurai
• Samundra Institute of Maritime Studies, Mumbai
• Indian Maritime University (IMU), Vizag
• Indian Maritime University (IMU), Kochi
• Chennai School of Ship Management
• Amer Maritime Training Academy, Kanpur
• Centre for Maritime Education & Training, Lucknow
• Hindustan Institute of Maritime Training Pre-Sea Training Center, Chennai

19.2.1 Commercial Sailors:
Institutes offer courses that will equip them with the necessary skills and certifications to work on commercial ships.
The training will cover basic seamanship, navigation, safety procedures, and maritime regulations.

20. In Case of Drawback (Fail) or free more than 6 months:

• Jet King
• Computer courses:
• Data Science
• Software developer
• Machine Learning Developers
• Cloud Architect
• Devops Engineer
• Big Data engineer
• Digital Marketing
• Software Architect
• Artificial Intelligence
• User Experience Design
• Animation Courses
• Typing
• Mobile Services Courses
• Fashion Design
• Interior Design
• Chief Training

Physical World

1.1 What is Physics?

• Science: (Latin: to Know) It is the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiments.

• Science is defined as the observation, identification, description, experimental investigation, and theoretical explanation of natural phenomena.

• In simple terms Science is exploring, experimenting and predicting from our surroundings.

• Science is ever dynamic.

• It is also called Natural Science. There are five major branches of natural science as follows;

• Physics

• Chemistry

• Biology

• Astronomy and

• Earth Science

• In Sanskrit the word Knowledge means “Vijnan”.

• In Arabic the word Knowledge means “Ilm”.

• There is no final theory in science and no unquestioned authority among scientists. It should always undergo form improvement, modification and new results.

• Modification may lie within the framework of existing theory. Ex: When Johannes Kepler (1571-1601) examined the extensive data on planetary motion collected by Tycho Brahe (1473-1573), the planetary circular orbits in heliocentric theory (sun at the center of the solar system)  imagine by Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) had to be replaced by elliptical orbits to fit the data better.

Note:

• Johannes Kepler said the planets revolve in elliptical orbits in heliocentric theory.

• Tycho Brahe said the planets revolve in circular orbits in heliocentric theory.

• Nicolas Copernicus proposed heliocentric theory.

• Ptolemy of Alexandria proposed Geocentric theory in the 2nd century. According to him, Earth was the centre of the entire universe.

1.1.1 Scientific Method:

The scientific method is a systematic approach that scientists use to investigate natural phenomena.

Steps for Scientific Methods as follows:

• Systematic Observations

• Controlled Experiments

• Qualitative and Quantitative Reasonings

• Mathematical modelling

• Prediction

• Verification

• Falsification of theories

• Speculation (educated guess) and Conjecture (incomplete information).

Note:

• A scientific theory is only accepted if it is supported by relevant observations or experiments.

• The continuous interaction between theory and observation/experiment is essential for the progress of science.

1.2 Physics: (Gr: Nature)

• Physics is a basic discipline in the category of Natural Sciences.

• It is a branch of natural science that deals with the study of matter, energy and force that interacts within the physical world/universe.

• Physics deals with certain basic rules/laws governing the natural world.

• Physics explains diverse physical phenomena in terms of a few concepts and laws.

• It includes areas such as classical mechanics, electromagnetism, thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, and relativity.

• The physical world includes everything from the smallest subatomic particles to the largest galaxies. The physical world is the universe that we can experience through our senses. It is the world of matter, energy, and forces.

1.2.1 Types or Domains of Physics:

It is divided into two domains based on the matter can see or not as follows;

• Classical physics is the study of matter and energy at the macroscopic scale, where objects can be seen and touched. It includes topics such as mechanics, thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and optics.

• Modern physics is the study of matter and energy at the microscopic and subatomic scale, where objects cannot be seen or touched. It includes topics such as quantum mechanics, relativity, and nuclear physics.

1.2.2 Generally using Terms in physics:

• Element: Pure form of atom or A substance that is made up of only one type of atom. It is made of protons and neutrons but not electrons. 

• Atom (Gr: No to cut or indivisible): The smallest unit of matter. It is made of protons, neutrons and electrons. 

• Matter: It is anything that has mass and occupies space.

• Solid: It particles are closely packed and have fixed positions. Solids have a definite shape and volume.

• Liquid: It has a definite volume, but they take the shape of their container. 

• Gas: It has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume. 

• Plasma: It is a state of matter that is similar to a gas, but its particles are electrically charged. Plasma is found in stars and other astronomical objects.

• Gravitation: It is a fundamental force of nature that causes objects with mass or energy to be attracted to each other. 

• SI Unit: Newton (N), for 1N for Kg x m/s2).

• Force: It is the interaction between objects that results in a change in their motion or state of rest.

• Force is necessary to start, stop, or change the direction of an object's movement.

• SI Unit: Newton (N).

• Friction: It is the force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact.

• SI Unit: Newton (N).

• Torque: It is a rotational force.

• SI Unit: 𝞽 = N x m 

• A lever is a simple machine that helps you lift or move heavy objects using less force.

• Archimedes proposed the Principle of the lever and buoyancy.

• Momentum: Mass in motion.

• SI Unit: Kg m/s or N x s.

• Formula: p = mV, where p is momentum, m = mass and V = velocity.

• Mass: It is a measure of the total amount of matter in an object.

• SI Unit: Kg

• Volume: It is a measure of the amount of space enclosed by the boundaries (length, width and height or 3D) of an object or substance.

• SI Unit: Cubic units like (m3) or (ft3). 1m3= 1000L

• Density: It is the measurement of how tightly a material is packed together. It is defined as the mass per unit volume.

            SI Unit: kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm³).

• Formula: Density (ρ) = Mass (m) / Volume (V)

• Energy: It is the ability to do work. SI Unit: Joules = N x m

• Joule is the amount of work done when a force of one newton moves an object one meter.

• Joules measure how much work is done, while torque measures how much rotational force is applied.

• Potential Energy: It is the energy stored in an object due to its position or configuration.

• Formula: PE = mgh (mass x gravity x height)

• Kinetic Energy: It is the energy of motion.

• Formula: KE = ½ x m x V2 (mass x velocity square)

• Temperature: It is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object or substance.

• It reflects the kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making up a substance.

• The faster the particles are moving, the higher the temperature.

• Temperature can be measured in a variety of different units, including Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Kelvin.

• The Celsius scale is the most commonly used scale in everyday life. The Fahrenheit scale is commonly used in the United States.

• The Kelvin scale is the SI unit of temperature.

• ◦C = [(◦F - 32) 5/9] ◦C

• ◦F = [(◦C x 9/5) + 32] ◦F

• ◦C = [◦K - 273.15] ◦C

• ◦K = [◦C + 273.15] ◦K

• ◦F = {[(◦K-273.15) x 9/5] + 32} ◦F

• ◦K = [(◦F - 32) 5/9 + 273.15] ◦K

• Heat: Heat is a form of energy that is transferred between objects or systems as a result of temperature differences. It flows spontaneously from hotter objects to colder ones and is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics.

• Heat can be transferred in three different ways: conduction, convection, and radiation.

• Convection = Heat transfer through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases). Warmer, less dense fluid rises, and cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a circulation pattern that transfers heat.

• Entropy: It is a measure of the energy that cannot be used to do work. SI unit = J/K (ΔS = ΔQ/T).

• Whereas ΔS is entropy, ΔQ is heat transfer and T is Constant temperature.

• Inertia: It means an object at rest will tend to stay at rest, and an object in motion will tend to stay in motion, unless acted upon by an external force.

• Galileo proposed Inertia.

• Motion: It is the change in position of an object with respect to time.

• Displacement: It is the change in position of an object from its initial position to its final position.

• Distance: Distance is a scalar quantity that measures the length of the path travelled by an object.

• Frequency: It is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time. SI unit is hertz (1/s).

• Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement  or It is a vector quantity, which means it has both magnitude and direction. SI unit is m/s.

• Ex: Aircraft, Spacecraft, Ships

• Speed: It is the rate of change of distance or It is a scalar quantity, which means it only has magnitude (numerical value) and no direction. SI unit is m/s.

• Ex: Car, Bicycle etc

• Acceleration: It is the rate of change of velocity. The SI unit is m/s2.

• Ex: If the car starts to accelerate, its velocity will increase. If the car starts to decelerate, its velocity will decrease.

1.2.3 The Principal Thrusts in physics:

• Thrust is the force that propels an object forward.

• Finding a single theory to explain all the forces in the universe, using as few models as possible is known as the Principal Thrust.

• It is contain to two remarks as follows:

• Unification: It refers to the development of theories that aim to explain multiple phenomena using a single, overarching framework.

• Ex: Albert Einstein's theory of relativity aimed to unify the concepts of space and time.

• Reduction: Simplifying complex systems into simple many models.

• Ex: The reduction of the kinetic theory of gases to the laws of thermodynamics.

1.2.4 Effects of Physics:

• Gravity keeps us from floating off the Earth and holds the planets in orbit around the Sun.

• Electromagnetism powers our homes and businesses, and it is also responsible for the light we see and the radio waves we use to communicate.

• Quantum mechanics governs the behaviour of matter at the atomic and subatomic level, and it is essential for our understanding of how computers and other electronic devices work.

• These and all can be described by using simple theories.

• Unidentified phenomenon's are explained by developing new theories through conducting observations and experiments.

1.2.5 Uses of Physics:

• Engineering to design and build bridges, airplanes, and other structures.

• Medicine to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic techniques.

• Energy production to develop new ways to generate and store energy.

• Environmental science to study the effects of human activity on the planet.

• Astronomy to study the stars, planets, and other objects in the universe.

• By applying the principles of physics, we can make progress in science, technology, and other fields.

1.3 Scope and Excitement of Physics:

• The scope of Physics is very broad and covers a wide range of magnitudes of physical quantities such as length, mass, time, energy, etc. and it deals with macroscopic (Classical Physics) and microscopic levels (Modern Physics).

• The macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales.

• The microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomena.

• But these two are connected to an intermediate domain called Mesoscopic Physics.

1.3.1 Classical Physics:

It deals mainly with macroscopic phenomena and includes subjects like Mechanics, Electrodynamics, Optics and Thermodynamics.

1.3.1.1 Newtonian Mechanics:

• A branch of mechanics that deals with concepts of Newton's law of motion and law of gravity with a distance, time, and mass in a period of time are known as Newtonian mechanics.

• This Newtonian mechanics describes the motion of objects in routine life affected by the forces. Ex: Propulsion systems are commonly used in transportation, such as in rockets, airplanes, ships, and vehicles, to achieve motion or accelerate.

• Ex: The equilibrium of a bent rod under a load.

• These mechanics were unable to explain phenomena such as black body radiation, photoelectric effect, and the temperature dependence of a substance's heat capacity.

• This led to development of Quantum Mechanics (deals with atomic and molecular phenomena).

1.3.1.2 Electrodynamics:

• It deals with electric and magnetic phenomena associated with charged and magnetic bodies.

• Ex: The movement of a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field and the generating of radio waves in the Ionosphere.

1.3.1.3 Optics:

• It deals with the phenomena involving light.

• Ex: The working of telescopes and microscopes, colors exhibited by thin films etc.

1.3.1.4 Thermodynamics:

• Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat, work, energy, and the properties of matter.

• Thermodynamics is about how energy is transferred from one form to another.

• Ex: when you turn on a stove, the electrical energy from the outlet is transferred into heat energy on the stovetop. When you cook food on the stovetop, the heat energy is transferred into the food, which causes it to cook.

• It helps us understand how things like engines, refrigerators, and even our bodies work by studying how heat moves and how energy is transformed. 

1.3.2 Modern Physics:

It deals mainly with Microscopic phenomena and includes subjects like  atomic, molecular, nuclear phenomenon and their interactions.

1.3.2.1 Quantum Mechanics:

• Atoms were first proposed by Democritus in the 5th century.

• Atoms were first discovered by Dalton.

• Nuclear model of the atom demonstrated by Ernest Rutherford (alpha particles).

• Behaviour of electrons explained by Niels Bohe.

• Paul Dirac theoretically introduced antiparticles (Positron), later confirmed by Carl Anderson.

• Application: It is the foundation of many modern technologies, such as lasers, transistors, and computers.

• It explains universal laws.

Note:

The mass  of electrons is 10-30 Kg and electrons discovered by J J Thomson.

1.3.3 Hypothesis, axioms, models and assumptions:

• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for a phenomenon. Ex: Smoking causes cancer

• An axiom is a self-evident statement that is assumed to be true without proof. Ex: God and devil or mathematical problems.

• A model is a simplified representation of a real-world system or phenomenon. Ex: A climate model

• An assumption is a statement that is taken to be true without proof for the sake of an argument or analysis. Ex: The Earth is a sphere.

1.4 Physics in Relation to Other Sciences:

Physics is a very significant branch of science which plays a crucial role in understanding the developments pertaining to the other branches of science such as Chemistry, Biology etc.

• Physics in relation to Mathematics: Study of physical variables led to the idea of differentiation, integration and differential equations. Meaningful interpretation of Mathematics becomes Physics.

• Physics in relation to Chemistry: The concept of X-ray diffraction and radioactivity has helped to distinguish between the various solids and to modify the periodic table.

• Understanding the bonding and the chemical structure of substances is easy with the help of the concept of interactions between various particles.

• Physics in relation to Astronomy: Optical telescopes of reflecting and refracting type enabled man to explore the space around. Discoveries like radio telescopes have revolutionized the study of Astronomy.

• Physics in relation to Biology: The conceptual study of pressure and its measurement has helped us to know blood pressure and hence the functioning of the heart. Invention of X-rays developed the field of diagnosis. Electron and optical microscopic designs have revolutionized the study of medical science.

Note:

• Isotopes are members of a family of an element that all have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

• Isotopes are two types based on stable or unstable as follows;

1. Heavy Isotopes: It is also known as stable Isotopes. It is not undergoing decaying.

2. Radioactive Isotopes:  It is also known as unstable Isotopes. It is undergoing decay.

1.5 Physics, Technology and Society:

• Physics and technology are related to each other.  Sometimes technology gives rise to new physics; at other times physics generates new technology.  Both have a direct impact on society.

• Silicon ‘chips’ that triggered the computer revolution.

• The neutron-triggered fission of uranium, a phenomenon that forms the foundation for nuclear power reactors and the development of nuclear weaponry.

• The steam engine played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution.

• Wireless communication technology is a direct result of the discovery of the basic laws of electricity and magnetism.

• Converting solar energy, geothermal energy, and other renewable energy sources into electricity.

• Hydroelectric power through conversion of gravitational potential energy into electric energy.

1.6 Fundamental Forces in Nature:

There are four fundamental forces in nature based on type of particles, strength and range of force is classified as follows; 

1. Gravitational Force

2. Electromagnetic Force

3. Weak Nuclear Force

4. Strong Nuclear Force

1.6.1 Gravitational Force:

• This force acts between all objects with mass or energy.

• It is the weakest of the fundamental forces but has an infinite range.

• Gravitational force is responsible for the attraction between objects like the Earth and the Moon, causing objects to have weight, and governing the large-scale structure of the universe.

1.6.2 Electromagnetic Force:

• This force acts between electrically charged particles.

• It can be attractive (opposite charges attract) or repulsive (like charges repel).

• It is stronger than gravitational force but has an infinite range.

• Electromagnetic force is responsible for interactions involving charged particles, such as electrons orbiting the nucleus in atoms and the behaviour of magnets.

1.6.3 Weak Nuclear Force (Weak Interaction):

• The weak nuclear force is responsible for processes like beta decay in atomic nuclei.

• It is much weaker than the electromagnetic and strong nuclear forces and acts over very short distances.

• The weak force plays a crucial role in processes like the conversion of a neutron into a proton within an atomic nucleus.

1.6.4 Strong Nuclear Force (Strong Interaction):

• The strong nuclear force is the strongest of the fundamental forces, but it also has a very short range, acting only within atomic nuclei.

• It's responsible for holding protons and neutrons together within the nucleus (Quarks and Gluons).

• Without the strong nuclear force, atomic nuclei would not be stable.

1.6.5 Unification of Forces:

• Unification of forces is the idea that all of the fundamental forces in nature are different manifestations of a single underlying force.

• Gravity pulls things together.

• Electromagnetism controls how electric and magnetic forces work.

• The strong nuclear force holds the center of atoms together.

• The weak nuclear force is involved in some types of radioactive decay.

• Scientists want to find a single theory that explains how all these forces are connected.

1.7 System, Surrounding and Types:

• System: A system is a part of the universe that we have chosen to study, in order to understand how it changes in response to different conditions.

• Ex: Systems can be complex, like a planet, or simple, like the liquid in a glass.

• Surrounding: The remaining portion of the universe other than the system boundaries is known as surrounding.

• Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separates the system from its surroundings.

1.7.1 Types of Systems:

Systems are classified into three types based on the exchange of matter or/and energy with their surroundings or not.

1. Open System

2. Closed System and

3. Isolated System

1.7.1.1 Open System:

• Open systems can exchange both energy and matter with their surroundings.

• Examples of open systems include a car engine, a human body, and a plant.

1.7.1.2 Closed System:

• Closed systems can exchange energy with their surroundings, but not matter.

• Examples of closed systems include a thermos bottle, a sealed balloon, and a planet.

1.7.1.3 Isolated System:

• Isolated systems cannot exchange either energy or matter with their surroundings.

• Examples of isolated systems are very rare, but they could include a universe that is completely isolated from any other universes.

1.8 Law of Conservation:

• Conserved quantities are physical quantities that remain constant over time in a system even when changes occur in the system.

• For example, the total mechanical energy of a system remains constant as long as no external forces are acting on the system.

• A Conservation law is a physical principle that states that a certain quantity remains constant as a system evolves over time. This means that the quantity cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be changed from one form to another.

• Law of Conservation of Energy: This law states that the total energy in a closed system remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can change from one form to another (e.g., from potential energy to kinetic energy).

• Law of Conservation of Mass: In most everyday situations, mass is conserved. This means that the total mass of a closed system remains constant, even if substances undergo chemical reactions or physical changes.

• Mass will be in relation to energy through Einstein theory, E = mc2 (where E = Energy, m = mass and c will be the speed of light in vacuum.)

• Law of Conservation of Momentum: Momentum, which is the product of an object's mass and velocity, is conserved in a closed system when no external forces act on it. This means that the total momentum of a system before an event (like a collision) is equal to the total momentum after the event.

• Law of Conservation of electric charge: The total electric charge of an isolated system remains constant.